The
de-christianization of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of the results of a number of separate policies, conducted by various governments of France between the start of the
French Revolution in 1789 and the
Concordat of 1801, forming the basis of the later and less radical
Laïcité movement.
The goal of the campaign was the destruction of
Catholic religious practice and of the religion itself.
[1] There has been much scholarly debate over whether the movement was popularly motivated or something forced upon the people by those in power.
[1]
The Church under the Ancien Régime
In 18th-century
France, ninety-five percent of the population were adherents of the
Catholic Church; most of the rest were Protestant
Huguenots, who, although greatly outnumbered by the Catholics, nonetheless retained powerful positions in French local governments. (A small population of Jews, amounting to around 40,000, also existed, and very small numbers of Muslims may also have lived in the kingdom; in a country whose total population was at least 27 million, however, these groups remained numerically negligible.) The
Ancien Régime institutionalised the authority of the clergy in its status as the
First Estate of the
realm. As the largest landowner in the country, the Catholic Church controlled properties which provided massive revenues from its tenants; the Church also had an enormous income from the collection of
tithes. Since the Church kept the registry of births, deaths, and marriages and was the only institution that provided primary and secondary education and hospitals, it influenced all citizens.
New policies of the Revolution
The programme of dechristianization waged against Catholicism, and eventually against all forms of Christianity, included:
[1][2][3]
- confiscation of church lands, which were to be the security for the new Assignat currency
- removal of statues, plates and other iconography from places of worship
- destruction of crosses, bells and other external signs of worship
- the institution of revolutionary and civic cults, including the Cult of Reason and subsequently the Cult of the Supreme Being,
- the enactment of a law on October 21, 1793 making all nonjuring priests and all persons who harboured them liable to death on sight.
The climax was reached with the celebration of the Goddess "Reason" in
Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 November 1793.
The dechristianization campaign can be seen as the logical extension of the materialist philosophies of some leaders of the enlightenment, while for others with more prosaic concerns it was an opportunity to unleash resentments against the Church and clergy.
[4]
The Revolution and the Church
In August, 1789, the State cancelled the taxing power of the Church. The issue of church property became central to the policies of the new revolutionary government. Declaring that all church property in France belonged to the nation, confiscations were ordered and church properties were sold at
public auction. In July 1790, the
National Constituent Assembly published the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy that stripped clerics of their special rights — the clergy were to be made employees of the state, elected by their parish or bishopric, and the number of bishoprics was to be reduced — and required all priests and bishops to swear an oath of fidelity to the new order or face dismissal, deportation or death.
French priests had to receive
Papal approval to sign such an oath, and
Pius VI spent almost eight months deliberating on the issue. On April 13, 1791, the Pope denounced the Constitution resulting in a split in the French Catholic church.
Abjuring priests ("jurors") became known as "constitutional clergy", and nonjuring priests as "refractory clergy".
Map (in French) of the percentage of jurors among French priests.
In September 1792, the
Legislative Assembly legalized
divorce, contrary to Catholic doctrine. At the same time, the State took control of the birth, death, and marriage registers away from the Church. An ever increasing view that the Church was a counter-revolutionary force exacerbated the social and economic grievances and violence erupted in towns and cities across France.
In
Paris, over a forty-eight hour period beginning on September 2, 1792, as the
Legislative Assembly (successor to the National Constituent Assembly) dissolved into chaos, three Church bishops and more than two hundred priests were massacred by angry mobs; this constituted part of what would become known as the
September Massacres. Priests were among those drowned in mass executions (
noyades) for
treason under the direction of
Jean-Baptiste Carrier; priests and nuns were among the mass executions at
Lyon, for
separatism, on the orders of
Joseph Fouché and
Collot d'Herbois. Hundreds more priests were imprisoned and made to suffer in abominable conditions in the port of
Rochefort.
Anti-church laws were passed by the
Legislative Assembly and its successor, the
National Convention, as well as by
département councils throughout the country. Many of the acts of dechristianization in 1793 were motivated by the seizure of church gold and silver to finance the war effort,
[5] though exceptions weren't uncommon. In November 1793, the
département council of
Indre-et-Loire abolished the word
dimanche (English: Sunday).
[citation needed] The
Gregorian calendar, an instrument decreed by
Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, was replaced by the
French Republican Calendar which abolished the
sabbath,
Saints' days and any references to the Church.
Anti-clerical parades were held, and the
Archbishop of Paris was forced to resign his duties and made to replace his
mitre with the red "
Cap of Liberty." Street and place names with any sort of religious connotation were changed, such as the town of
St. Tropez which became Héraclée. Religious holidays were banned and replaced with holidays to celebrate the harvest and other non-religious symbols.
Robespierre and his colleagues decided to supplant both Catholicism and the rival,
atheistic Cult of Reason with the
Cult of the Supreme Being. Just six weeks before his arrest, on June 8, 1794 the still-powerful Robespierre personally led a vast procession through Paris to the
Tuileries garden in a ceremony to inaugurate the new faith.
The dechristianisation of France reached its zenith around the middle of 1794 with the fall of Robespierre. By early 1795 a return to some form of religion-based faith was beginning to take shape and a law passed on February 21, 1795 legalised public worship, albeit with strict limitations. The ringing of church bells, religious processions and displays of the
Christian cross were still forbidden.
As late as 1799, priests were still being imprisoned or deported to penal colonies and persecution only worsened after the French army led by General
Louis Alexandre Berthier captured
Rome and imprisoned
Pope Pius VI, who would die in captivity in
Valence, France in August 1799. Ultimately, with
Napoleon now in ascendancy in France, year-long negotiations between government officials and the new Pope,
Pius VII, led to the
Concordat of 1801, formally ending the dechristianisation period and establishing the rules for a relationship between the Roman Church and the French State.
Victims of the Reign of Terror totaled somewhere between 20,000 and 40,000. According to one estimate, among those condemned by the revolutionary tribunals, about 8 percent were aristocrats, 6 percent clergy, 14 percent middle class, and 70 percent were workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, and other purported crimes.
[6] Of these social groupings, the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church suffered proportionately the greatest loss.
[6]
While persecution of certain Roman Catholic clerics and monastic orders occurred during the
Third Republic, the
Concordat of 1801 endured for more than a century until it was abrogated by the government of the Third Republic, which established a policy of
laïcité on December 11, 1905.
Toll on the Church
Under threat of death, imprisonment, military conscription, and loss of income, about twenty thousand constitutional priests were forced to abdicate and hand over their letters of ordination, and six thousand to nine thousand of them were coerced to marry. Many abandoned their pastoral duties altogether.
[1] Nonetheless, some of those who had abdicated continued covertly to minister to the people.
[1]
By the end of the decade, approximately thirty thousand priests had been forced to leave France, and others who did not leave were executed.
[4] Most French parishes were left without the services of a priest and deprived of the
sacraments. Any non-juring priest faced the
guillotine or deportation to
French Guiana.
[1] By Easter 1794, few of France's forty thousand churches remained open; many had been closed, sold, destroyed, or converted to other uses.
[1]
Victims of revolutionary violence, whether religious or not, were popularly treated as Christian martyrs, and the places where they were killed became pilgrimage destinations.
[1] Catechising in the home,
folk religion,
syncretic and
heterodox practices all became more common.
[1] The longterm effects on religious practice in France were significant. Many who were dissuaded from their traditional religious practices never resumed them.
[1]
Gallery
-
"Disaffectation" of a church, Jacques François Joseph Swebach-Desfontaines, 1794.
-
-
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Tallet, Frank Religion, Society and Politics in France Since 1789 pp. 1-17 1991 Continuum International Publishing
- ^ Latreille, A. FRENCH REVOLUTION, New Catholic Encyclopedia v. 5, pp. 972–973 (Second Ed. 2002 Thompson/Gale) ISBN 0-7876-4004-2
- ^ SPIELVOGEL, Jackson Western Civilization: Combined Volume p. 549, 2005 Thomson Wadsworth
- ^ a b Lewis, Gwynne The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate p.96, 1993 Routledge, ISBN 0-415-05466-4 "Many of the Parisian Sections eagerly joined in the priest-hunt...."
- ^ Lewis, Gwynne The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate p.45 1993 Routledge, ISBN 0-415-05466-4
- ^ a b Harvey, Donald Joseph FRENCH REVOLUTION, History.com 2006 (Accessed April 27, 2007)
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